Grounded Theory Guide

A skill for applying grounded theory methodology (GTM) to generate theory grounded in empirical data. Covers the three major schools (Glaser, Strauss/Corbin, Charmaz), coding procedures, theoretical sampling, memo writing, and criteria for evaluating grounded theories.

Three Schools of Grounded Theory

Comparing Approaches

Aspect	Classic (Glaser)	Straussian (Strauss & Corbin)	Constructivist (Charmaz)
Ontology	Objective reality	Pragmatist	Relativist/constructivist
Literature review	Delay until theory emerges	Early but non-constraining	Early, reflexive engagement
Coding paradigm	Open, selective, theoretical	Open, axial, selective	Initial, focused, theoretical
Verification	Emergent fit	Systematic validation	Co-construction with participants
Core output	Substantive theory	Process model	Interpretive theory
Key text	Glaser (1978)	Strauss & Corbin (1998)	Charmaz (2014)

Choosing an Approach

Use Classic GTM when:
  - You want the theory to emerge with minimal preconception
  - You are studying a process in a substantive area

Use Straussian GTM when:
  - You need a structured, systematic coding procedure
  - Your discipline values replicable analytical steps

Use Constructivist GTM when:
  - You acknowledge the researcher's role in co-creating meaning
  - You study experiences, identities, or social processes
  - You work in health, education, or social science

The Coding Process

Three-Stage Coding

def grounded_theory_coding_stages() -> dict:
    """
    Describe the three stages of grounded theory coding.
    """
    return {
        "stage_1_initial_coding": {
            "also_called": "Open coding",
            "description": (
                "Examine data line by line or incident by incident. "
                "Generate codes that stay close to the data. "
                "Use gerunds (action words ending in -ing) to capture processes."
            ),
            "example": {
                "data": "I started looking for help online because the doctor "
                        "did not explain anything to me.",
                "codes": [
                    "Seeking information online",
                    "Experiencing communication gap with provider",
                    "Taking initiative in own care"
                ]
            },
            "tips": [
                "Code quickly -- do not overthink individual codes",
                "Stay open; do not force data into preexisting categories",
                "Code actions and processes, not topics",
                "Write memos about ideas that arise during coding"
            ]
        },
        "stage_2_focused_coding": {
            "also_called": "Axial coding (Strauss) or Focused coding (Charmaz)",
            "description": (
                "Select the most frequent and significant initial codes. "
                "Use them to sort and synthesize larger amounts of data. "
                "Identify relationships between categories."
            ),
            "tasks": [
                "Elevate initial codes to categories",
                "Identify properties and dimensions of each category",
                "Compare categories across cases",
                "Begin developing a conceptual framework"
            ]
        },
        "stage_3_theoretical_coding": {
            "also_called": "Selective coding",
            "description": (
                "Identify the core category that integrates all other "
                "categories into a coherent theoretical framework. "
                "Specify relationships between categories."
            ),
            "output": "A substantive theory explaining the phenomenon"
        }
    }

Theoretical Sampling

Sampling Driven by Emerging Theory

Traditional sampling: Decide sample before data collection
Theoretical sampling: Let the emerging theory guide who/what to sample next

Process:
  1. Collect initial data (purposive sampling)
  2. Analyze data, identify emerging categories
  3. Ask: "Where should I look next to develop these categories?"
  4. Sample deliberately to fill gaps in the emerging theory
  5. Continue until theoretical saturation

Example:
  Initial interviews: Patients with chronic illness
  Emerging category: "Navigating insurance barriers"
  Next sample: Interview insurance navigators and social workers
  Emerging category: "Stigma in seeking help"
  Next sample: Interview patients who avoided seeking help

Memo Writing

The Engine of Grounded Theory

Memos are the researcher's running commentary on codes, categories, and theoretical ideas. They are the primary mechanism for developing theory.

Memo types:
  - Code memos: Define and elaborate a code or category
  - Theoretical memos: Explore relationships between categories
  - Operational memos: Record methodological decisions
  - Reflexive memos: Examine researcher influence on the analysis

Memo example:
  MEMO: "Becoming an expert patient" (2026-03-05)

  Several participants describe a transition from passive
  recipient of care to active manager of their condition.
  This process seems to involve three phases: (1) initial
  confusion and dependence, (2) information seeking and
  experimentation, (3) confident self-management. The trigger
  appears to be a critical incident (a misdiagnosis, a bad
  interaction with a provider) that motivates the person to
  take control. Compare with Corbin & Strauss's trajectory
  framework. Need to sample someone early in the trajectory
  to test whether the trigger is consistent.

Evaluating Grounded Theory

Quality Criteria

Criterion	Description	How to Demonstrate
Fit	Theory fits the data it was derived from	Show clear evidence trail from data to codes to categories
Relevance	Theory addresses a real concern of participants	Member checking, resonance with practitioners
Workability	Theory explains the process and enables prediction	Apply the theory to new cases
Modifiability	Theory can be updated with new data	Show how the theory evolved during the study
Credibility	Analysis is thorough and systematic	Audit trail, reflexive memos, theoretical saturation

Reporting a Grounded Theory Study

Include: a clear description of the coding process and how categories were derived, a diagram or model of the theory, representative quotes for each major category, an explanation of theoretical sampling decisions, and a discussion of how the theory relates to existing literature. Use the SRQR (Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research) checklist to ensure completeness.