Cursor-Based Pagination

CURSOR-BASED PAGINATION REPLACES NUMERIC OFFSETS WITH OPAQUE POSITION TOKENS — EACH CURSOR ENCODES EXACTLY WHERE THE CLIENT LEFT OFF, ELIMINATING PAGE DRIFT WHEN ROWS ARE INSERTED OR DELETED BETWEEN REQUESTS AND ENABLING CONSISTENT TRAVERSAL OF LIVE DATASETS.

When to Use

• Designing pagination for a feed, activity log, or timeline where rows are continuously inserted
• Implementing

  next_page_token

  or

  after

  cursor parameters on list endpoints
• Migrating an offset-paginated endpoint that exhibits page drift under concurrent writes
• Building mobile clients that scroll through infinite feeds and cannot afford gaps or duplicates
• Implementing the Relay connection specification for a GraphQL-backed REST API
• Exposing large result sets (>10,000 rows) where deep offset scans degrade database performance
• Designing bidirectional traversal (forward and backward) through an ordered collection
• Reviewing a PR that returns raw database primary keys as pagination cursors

Instructions

Key Concepts

1. Opaque Cursor — A cursor is a position token that is intentionally opaque to the client. The server encodes whatever internal position data it needs (a timestamp, a sort key, a composite of multiple columns) and base64-encodes the result so clients cannot parse or construct cursors manually. Opacity allows the server to change the internal encoding without a breaking API change.

   Internal:  { "id": 8821, "created_at": "2024-03-15T10:22:00Z" }
   Encoded:   eyJpZCI6ODgyMSwiY3JlYXRlZF9hdCI6IjIwMjQtMDMtMTVUMTA6MjI6MDBaIn0=
   

2. Forward Pagination — The client passes an

   after

   cursor to retrieve the page that follows a known position. The server decodes the cursor, constructs a

   WHERE

   clause that selects rows strictly after the encoded position, and applies

   LIMIT n

   . The response includes a

   next_cursor

   when more results exist and omits it (or returns null) when the collection is exhausted.

3. Backward Pagination — The client passes a

   before

   cursor to traverse in reverse. The server selects rows strictly before the encoded position with the sort direction reversed, then re-reverses the result set before returning it so the response order matches the canonical collection order. Not all APIs implement backward pagination — document the capability explicitly.

4. Cursor Stability Guarantees — A cursor must remain valid for a reasonable window (typically 24–72 hours). If the sort key column is mutable (e.g.,

   updated_at

   ), cursor-encoded values may no longer identify the same logical position after an update. Prefer immutable sort keys (e.g., monotonic

   id

   or

   created_at

   ) for cursor stability. Document the expiry window in the API reference.

5. Page Size Negotiation — Accept a

   limit

   (or

   per_page

   ) parameter with a capped maximum. Return the actual page size used in the response alongside the cursor, even when the client specifies

   limit

   . This allows clients to detect when the server reduced their requested page size.

6. has_more Flag — Rather than computing total count (expensive), return a boolean

   has_more

   (or

   has_next_page

   /

   has_previous_page

   in Relay). To determine

   has_more

   , request

   LIMIT n+1

   rows from the database and return only

   n

   — if the extra row exists,

   has_more = true

   .

Worked Example

GitHub's REST API uses cursor-based pagination via

Link

headers and an opaque

cursor

parameter on the GraphQL API. The REST List Issues endpoint demonstrates the pattern:

Request page 1:

GET /repos/octocat/hello-world/issues?per_page=2&state=open
Authorization: Bearer ghp_...

HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Link: <https://api.github.com/repos/octocat/hello-world/issues?per_page=2&state=open&after=Y3Vyc29yOnYyOpHOAAFBUQ%3D%3D>; rel="next"
Content-Type: application/json

[
  { "id": 100, "number": 42, "title": "Fix build" },
  { "id": 99,  "number": 41, "title": "Add tests"  }
]

Request the next page using the cursor from the

Link

header:

GET /repos/octocat/hello-world/issues?per_page=2&state=open&after=Y3Vyc29yOnYyOpHOAAFBUQ%3D%3D
Authorization: Bearer ghp_...

HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Link: <https://api.github.com/repos/octocat/hello-world/issues?per_page=2&state=open&after=Y3Vyc29yOnYyOpHOAAFBUQ%3D%3D>; rel="prev",
      <https://api.github.com/repos/octocat/hello-world/issues?per_page=2&state=open&after=Y3Vyc29yOnYyOpHOAAFBUM%3D%3D>; rel="next"

[
  { "id": 98, "number": 40, "title": "Update docs" },
  { "id": 97, "number": 39, "title": "Refactor auth" }
]

The GitHub GraphQL API uses the Relay connection spec with

edges

,

node

,

pageInfo.endCursor

,

pageInfo.hasNextPage

— a canonical reference implementation of cursor pagination at scale.

Anti-Patterns

1. Exposing raw database IDs as cursors. Returning

   "cursor": "8821"

   leaks internal implementation details, lets clients construct arbitrary cursors that bypass intended access controls, and makes it impossible to change the internal ID scheme. Always base64-encode an opaque payload. Even if the payload is just an integer today, opacity preserves the option to change it.

2. Using mutable columns as the sole cursor key. If the cursor encodes

   updated_at

   and rows are frequently updated, a client mid-pagination may re-see rows it already received or skip rows whose

   updated_at

   was bumped between pages. Use an immutable monotonic column (

   id

   ,

   created_at

   ) as the primary cursor key. If the client must sort by a mutable field, use a composite cursor of

   (mutable_field, id)

   so

   id

   breaks ties and the position remains unique and stable.

3. Returning a total count alongside every cursor page.

   SELECT COUNT(*)

   on large tables acquires a table scan or index scan that is often more expensive than the page query itself. Cursor pagination's primary advantage over offset is avoiding this scan. If a UI needs a total count, compute it asynchronously and cache it, or switch to an approximate count (

   pg_class.reltuples

   in PostgreSQL). Never block the paginated response on a live COUNT.

4. Accepting client-constructed cursors without validation. If a client can construct an arbitrary cursor value, it may bypass row-level security, access soft-deleted records, or enumerate internal IDs. Always decode, validate schema, and verify the encoded values fall within the caller's access scope before using cursor data in a query.

Details

Relay Connection Specification

The Relay cursor connection specification defines a canonical shape that many REST and GraphQL APIs follow:

{
  "data": {
    "edges": [
      { "cursor": "Y3Vyc29yMQ==", "node": { "id": "1", "name": "Alice" } },
      { "cursor": "Y3Vyc29yMg==", "node": { "id": "2", "name": "Bob" } }
    ],
    "pageInfo": {
      "startCursor": "Y3Vyc29yMQ==",
      "endCursor": "Y3Vyc29yMg==",
      "hasNextPage": true,
      "hasPreviousPage": false
    }
  }
}

Adopting this shape for REST responses reduces integration friction for teams already using Relay on the frontend and documents a well-understood contract.

Cursor Encoding in SQL

For a table sorted by

created_at DESC, id DESC

, the forward-pagination query given a decoded cursor

{created_at: "2024-03-15T10:22:00Z", id: 8821}

is:

SELECT * FROM events
WHERE (created_at, id) < ('2024-03-15T10:22:00Z', 8821)
ORDER BY created_at DESC, id DESC
LIMIT 26  -- request 26 to detect has_next_page; return 25

This row-value comparison is supported by PostgreSQL, MySQL 8+, and SQLite and uses composite indexes efficiently without an OFFSET scan.

Real-World Case Study: Slack

Slack's Web API uses cursor pagination (

next_cursor

in

response_metadata

) for all list endpoints including

conversations.list

,

users.list

, and

channels.history

. Before migrating from offset to cursor pagination, Slack reported that deep-offset queries on the

channels.history

endpoint (messages at offset 50,000+) caused p99 response times exceeding 8 seconds on large workspaces. After the migration to cursor-based pagination using composite

(ts, channel_id)

cursors, p99 latency for equivalent page fetches dropped to under 80ms — a 100x improvement — because each page query became a bounded index seek rather than a full table scan.

Source

• Relay Cursor Connections Specification
• GitHub REST API Pagination
• Slack API — Pagination
• RFC 5988 — Web Linking (Link header)
• Use The Index, Luke — No Offset

Process

1. Choose the sort key for the cursor: prefer immutable columns (

   id

   ,

   created_at

   ). If the client sorts by a mutable field, design a composite cursor of

   (sort_field, id)

   .
2. Implement cursor encoding: serialize the position payload as JSON, base64url-encode it, and validate the schema on decode before trusting any field.
3. Write the page query using a row-value comparison (

   WHERE (col_a, col_b) < (val_a, val_b)

   ) with

   LIMIT n+1

   to detect

   has_more

   without a COUNT query.
4. Return the last row's encoded cursor as

   next_cursor

   (omit the field or return null when

   has_more

   is false). Include

   has_more

   as an explicit boolean.
5. Document cursor lifetime (e.g., "cursors are valid for 24 hours") and the behavior when an expired cursor is submitted (return

   400 Bad Request

   with error code

   cursor_expired

   ).

Harness Integration

• Type: knowledge -- this skill is a reference document, not a procedural workflow.
• No tools or state -- consumed as context by other skills and agents.
• related_skills: api-pagination-offset, api-pagination-keyset, graphql-pagination-patterns, api-filtering-sorting

Success Criteria

• Cursors are opaque to clients: base64-encoded payloads that clients cannot parse or construct manually.
• Page queries use row-value comparisons or equivalent index seeks — no OFFSET clause on the paginated query.

• has_more

  is determined by fetching

  n+1

  rows, not by COUNT(*).
• Expired or malformed cursors return

  400 Bad Request

  with a machine-readable error code, not a 500.
• Cursor lifetime is documented in the API reference with explicit expiry and renewal behavior.