HSTS and Preloading

Tell the browser "never connect to this domain over HTTP, ever" -- and make it permanent by embedding the directive in every browser's shipped preload list

When to Use

• Deploying HTTPS for a new domain and need to prevent HTTP downgrade attacks
• Configuring security headers for production web applications
• Evaluating whether to submit a domain to the HSTS preload list
• Auditing existing HSTS configuration for correctness
• Understanding SSL stripping attacks and how HSTS prevents them

Threat Context

SSL stripping attacks (first demonstrated by Moxie Marlinspike at Black Hat 2009) intercept the initial HTTP request before the redirect to HTTPS and maintain a plaintext connection with the victim while establishing HTTPS with the server. The attacker proxies all traffic, rewriting HTTPS links to HTTP. The victim sees a working website with no browser warning because the connection was never upgraded to HTTPS in the first place. Tools like sslstrip automate this attack entirely. On public Wi-Fi networks, SSL stripping is trivial to execute with ARP spoofing. HSTS eliminates this by telling the browser to never attempt HTTP for the domain after the first successful HTTPS visit. The browser internally rewrites any

http://

URL to

https://

before sending the request. HSTS preloading eliminates even the first-visit vulnerability by shipping the directive in the browser itself -- the browser knows to use HTTPS before it has ever visited the domain.

Instructions

1. Set the HSTS header on all HTTPS responses.

   Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=31536000; includeSubDomains

   . The

   max-age=31536000

   directive means the browser will remember the HSTS policy for 1 year (31,536,000 seconds).

   includeSubDomains

   applies the directive to all subdomains, not just the apex domain. After receiving this header over a valid HTTPS connection, the browser will refuse to connect to the domain over HTTP for the specified duration, automatically upgrading any HTTP URL to HTTPS internally.

2. Redirect HTTP to HTTPS first. HSTS only works if the browser receives it over a valid HTTPS connection. Set up an HTTP-to-HTTPS 301 (permanent) redirect on all HTTP endpoints. The HSTS header must be sent on the HTTPS response -- it is ignored on HTTP responses per RFC 6797. The redirect ensures users who type

   http://

   are upgraded, and the HSTS header ensures they stay upgraded.

3. Ramp up max-age gradually. Start with a short max-age (5 minutes = 300 seconds) while testing. Verify no mixed content issues, no broken subdomains, no HTTP-only internal tools that would be affected. Increase to 1 week (604800), then 1 month (2592000), then 1 year (31536000). If HSTS is deployed with a 1-year max-age and HTTPS breaks (certificate expired, misconfiguration), the domain is inaccessible for up to 1 year for users who cached the directive. There is no way to revoke an HSTS directive from the server side once cached.

4. Submit to the HSTS preload list. Once max-age is at least 1 year,

   includeSubDomains

   is set, and a

   preload

   directive is added (

   Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=31536000; includeSubDomains; preload

   ), submit the domain at hstspreload.org. Once accepted, every Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge browser ships with the directive baked in at build time. The first-visit vulnerability is eliminated entirely. This is the strongest transport security guarantee available.

5. Ensure all subdomains support HTTPS before adding

   includeSubDomains

   . If any subdomain serves HTTP-only content (legacy internal tools, staging environments, development servers, marketing landing pages on a subdomain),

   includeSubDomains

   will break it. Audit all subdomains -- including those managed by other teams, third-party services using CNAME records, and forgotten legacy systems -- before enabling

   includeSubDomains

   .

6. Understand preload list removal is slow. Removing a domain from the preload list requires: removing the

   preload

   directive from the header, submitting a removal request at hstspreload.org, waiting for browser vendors to process it (weeks to months), and then waiting for all users to update their browsers. Full removal can take 6-12 months. This is intentional -- preloading is a commitment, not a toggle.

Details

SSL Stripping Attack Flow

1. Victim connects to

   http://bank.com

   (typed without

   https://

   or clicked a link)
2. Attacker on the same network intercepts the HTTP request (via ARP spoofing, rogue AP)
3. Attacker connects to

   https://bank.com

   on behalf of the victim
4. Attacker proxies all traffic, rewriting

   https://

   links in responses to

   http://

5. Victim sees a fully functional bank website served over HTTP
6. Attacker captures all credentials, session tokens, and financial data in plaintext

The victim has no browser warning because the connection was HTTP from the start. HSTS defeats this because the browser knows (from a previous visit or the preload list) that bank.com must use HTTPS and refuses to send any HTTP request.

HSTS Preload List Mechanics

The preload list is maintained as a JSON file in the Chromium source code (

net/http/transport_security_state_static.json

). Firefox, Safari, and Edge consume the same list. Submission requirements: the

preload

directive in the HSTS header,

includeSubDomains

directive, max-age of at least 31536000 (1 year), valid HTTPS on the apex domain (not just

www

), and valid HTTPS on all subdomains. The list is checked at browser build time and shipped with each browser release, not fetched at runtime.

Common Deployment Mistakes

• Mixed content: loading images, scripts, or stylesheets over HTTP from an HTTPS page (browsers block or warn, degrading user experience)
• Redirect loops: HTTP redirects to HTTPS which redirects back to HTTP
• Subdomains without HTTPS:

  internal.example.com

  only serves HTTP, but

  includeSubDomains

  forces HTTPS
• HSTS header on HTTP responses: ignored by spec, but confusing during debugging
• Setting

  max-age=0

  accidentally: disables HSTS, removing protection

Testing HSTS Configuration

Before deploying HSTS to production, verify the configuration thoroughly. Use

curl -sI https://example.com | grep -i strict

to check the header is present and correctly formatted. Use the Qualys SSL Labs test (ssllabs.com/ssltest) which reports HSTS status, max-age, and preload eligibility. Use hstspreload.org to check whether the domain meets all preload requirements. Test from multiple clients and browsers: some proxies strip security headers, and some CDN configurations do not forward them. Verify that the header is not sent on HTTP responses (it should only appear on HTTPS). Test subdomain coverage by checking HTTPS on every subdomain you can discover.

Interaction with Other Security Headers

HSTS works with

Content-Security-Policy: upgrade-insecure-requests

which automatically rewrites HTTP sub-resource URLs to HTTPS within the page. Together they ensure that both navigation and sub-resource loading use HTTPS. HSTS also interacts with

Referrer-Policy

: HTTPS-to-HTTP transitions strip the referrer header, which HSTS prevents by ensuring all connections are HTTPS. The combination of HSTS, CSP upgrade-insecure-requests, and proper referrer policy creates a comprehensive transport security posture.

Anti-Patterns

1. HSTS without testing subdomains. Enabling

   includeSubDomains

   when

   legacy.example.com

   only serves HTTP breaks that subdomain for the HSTS max-age duration. Users cannot bypass this -- the browser refuses to connect. Audit all subdomains first, including those managed by other teams.

2. max-age of 0 in production.

   max-age=0

   disables HSTS for any browser that receives it. If an attacker can force the browser to receive this header (via MITM on the first request before HSTS is cached), HSTS protection is removed for that user. Never set max-age to 0 in production.

3. Preloading before readiness. Submitting to the preload list before all subdomains support HTTPS, before the team understands the commitment, or before testing with a long max-age. Preload removal takes months and requires browser updates to propagate. Treat preloading as irreversible for practical purposes.

4. HSTS on HTTP responses. The

   Strict-Transport-Security

   header on an HTTP response is ignored per RFC 6797 Section 7.2. If browsers honored it on HTTP, an attacker could inject this header on an HTTP response to DoS a domain by forcing HTTPS on a domain that does not support it. Browsers correctly ignore it on HTTP, but its presence indicates a misconfiguration.

5. Relying only on HTTP-to-HTTPS redirects. Redirects alone do not prevent SSL stripping. The first request is still HTTP and interceptable. The redirect itself travels over HTTP and can be modified by the attacker. HSTS ensures subsequent requests are HTTPS without relying on a redirect. Preloading ensures even the first request is HTTPS.