Java Fundamentals

Foundational Java patterns and core language features. This skill serves as both a reference for common patterns and an index to specialized Java skills.

Overview

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                      Java Skill Hierarchy                       │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│                                                                 │
│                    ┌───────────────────┐                        │
│                    │   lang-java-dev   │ ◄── You are here       │
│                    │   (foundation)    │                        │
│                    └─────────┬─────────┘                        │
│                              │                                  │
│     ┌────────────┬───────────┼───────────┬────────────┐        │
│     │            │           │           │            │        │
│     ▼            ▼           ▼           ▼            ▼        │
│ ┌────────┐ ┌──────────┐ ┌────────┐ ┌─────────┐ ┌──────────┐   │
│ │patterns│ │  spring  │ │library │ │  build  │ │   test   │   │
│ │  -dev  │ │   -dev   │ │  -dev  │ │  -dev   │ │   -dev   │   │
│ └────────┘ └──────────┘ └────────┘ └─────────┘ └──────────┘   │
│                                                                 │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

This skill covers:

• Core syntax (classes, interfaces, enums, records)
• Object-oriented programming (inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation)
• Generics fundamentals
• Collections framework
• Stream API and lambda expressions
• Exception handling
• Modern Java features (records, sealed classes, pattern matching)

This skill does NOT cover (see specialized skills):

• Design patterns and best practices →

  lang-java-patterns-dev

• Spring framework →

  lang-java-spring-dev

• Library/package publishing →

  lang-java-library-dev

• Build tools (Maven, Gradle) →

  lang-java-build-dev

• Testing frameworks (JUnit, TestNG) →

  lang-java-test-dev

Quick Reference

class Name { }

interface Name { void method(); }

enum Status { PENDING, APPROVED }

record Point(int x, int y) {}

class Impl implements Interface { }

class Child extends Parent { }

class Box<T> { }

(x, y) -> x + y

list.stream().filter(...).map(...)

try { } catch (Exception e) { }

Skill Routing

Use this table to find the right specialized skill:

lang-java-patterns-dev

lang-java-spring-dev

lang-java-library-dev

lang-java-build-dev

lang-java-test-dev

Core Types and Classes

Classes

// Basic class
public class User {
    // Instance variables (fields)
    private String name;
    private int age;

    // Constructor
    public User(String name, int age) {
        this.name = name;
        this.age = age;
    }

    // Getters and setters
    public String getName() {
        return name;
    }

    public void setName(String name) {
        this.name = name;
    }

    // Instance method
    public void greet() {
        System.out.println("Hello, I'm " + name);
    }

    // Static method
    public static User createDefault() {
        return new User("Anonymous", 0);
    }
}

// Usage
User user = new User("Alice", 30);
user.greet();

Interfaces

// Interface definition
public interface Drawable {
    // Abstract method (implicitly public abstract)
    void draw();

    // Default method (Java 8+)
    default void render() {
        System.out.println("Rendering...");
        draw();
    }

    // Static method (Java 8+)
    static void info() {
        System.out.println("Drawable interface");
    }

    // Private method (Java 9+) - helper for default methods
    private void log(String message) {
        System.out.println("LOG: " + message);
    }
}

// Implementation
public class Circle implements Drawable {
    @Override
    public void draw() {
        System.out.println("Drawing circle");
    }
}

// Multiple interfaces
public class Shape implements Drawable, Comparable<Shape> {
    @Override
    public void draw() { }

    @Override
    public int compareTo(Shape other) {
        return 0;
    }
}

Abstract Classes

public abstract class Animal {
    private String name;

    public Animal(String name) {
        this.name = name;
    }

    // Abstract method - must be implemented by subclasses
    public abstract void makeSound();

    // Concrete method - inherited by subclasses
    public void sleep() {
        System.out.println(name + " is sleeping");
    }
}

public class Dog extends Animal {
    public Dog(String name) {
        super(name);
    }

    @Override
    public void makeSound() {
        System.out.println("Woof!");
    }
}

Enums

// Simple enum
public enum Status {
    PENDING,
    APPROVED,
    REJECTED
}

// Enum with fields and methods
public enum Planet {
    MERCURY(3.303e+23, 2.4397e6),
    VENUS(4.869e+24, 6.0518e6),
    EARTH(5.976e+24, 6.37814e6);

    private final double mass;
    private final double radius;

    Planet(double mass, double radius) {
        this.mass = mass;
        this.radius = radius;
    }

    public double getMass() {
        return mass;
    }

    public double surfaceGravity() {
        return 6.67300E-11 * mass / (radius * radius);
    }
}

// Enum with abstract methods
public enum Operation {
    PLUS {
        public double apply(double x, double y) { return x + y; }
    },
    MINUS {
        public double apply(double x, double y) { return x - y; }
    };

    public abstract double apply(double x, double y);
}

Records (Java 14+)

// Immutable data carrier
public record Point(int x, int y) {}

// Usage
Point p = new Point(10, 20);
System.out.println(p.x());  // Auto-generated accessor
System.out.println(p);       // Auto-generated toString()

// Record with custom methods
public record Person(String name, int age) {
    // Compact constructor for validation
    public Person {
        if (age < 0) {
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Age cannot be negative");
        }
    }

    // Additional methods
    public boolean isAdult() {
        return age >= 18;
    }
}

// Record with static factory
public record Range(int start, int end) {
    public static Range of(int start, int end) {
        if (start > end) {
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid range");
        }
        return new Range(start, end);
    }
}

Sealed Classes (Java 17+)

// Sealed class restricts which classes can extend it
public sealed class Shape
    permits Circle, Rectangle, Triangle {
}

public final class Circle extends Shape {
    private final double radius;

    public Circle(double radius) {
        this.radius = radius;
    }
}

public final class Rectangle extends Shape {
    private final double width, height;

    public Rectangle(double width, double height) {
        this.width = width;
        this.height = height;
    }
}

public non-sealed class Triangle extends Shape {
    // non-sealed allows further extension
}

Generics

Generic Classes

// Basic generic class
public class Box<T> {
    private T value;

    public void set(T value) {
        this.value = value;
    }

    public T get() {
        return value;
    }
}

// Usage
Box<String> stringBox = new Box<>();
stringBox.set("Hello");
String value = stringBox.get();

// Multiple type parameters
public class Pair<K, V> {
    private K key;
    private V value;

    public Pair(K key, V value) {
        this.key = key;
        this.value = value;
    }

    public K getKey() { return key; }
    public V getValue() { return value; }
}

Generic Methods

// Generic method
public static <T> T getFirst(List<T> list) {
    if (list.isEmpty()) {
        return null;
    }
    return list.get(0);
}

// Usage - type inference
List<String> names = List.of("Alice", "Bob");
String first = getFirst(names);

// Multiple type parameters
public static <K, V> Pair<K, V> makePair(K key, V value) {
    return new Pair<>(key, value);
}

Bounded Type Parameters

// Upper bound (extends)
public static <T extends Comparable<T>> T max(T a, T b) {
    return a.compareTo(b) > 0 ? a : b;
}

// Multiple bounds
public static <T extends Number & Comparable<T>> void process(T value) {
    // T must be a Number AND implement Comparable
}

// Lower bound (in wildcards)
public static void addNumbers(List<? super Integer> list) {
    list.add(1);
    list.add(2);
    // Can add Integer or its subtypes
}

// Upper bound wildcard
public static double sum(List<? extends Number> list) {
    double sum = 0;
    for (Number num : list) {
        sum += num.doubleValue();
    }
    return sum;
}

Type Erasure and Raw Types

// Type information is erased at runtime
Box<String> stringBox = new Box<>();
Box<Integer> intBox = new Box<>();
// At runtime, both are just Box

// Cannot do:
// new T()  - type parameter instantiation
// T.class  - class literal
// instanceof T  - instance check

// Raw types (avoid - legacy compatibility only)
Box rawBox = new Box();  // Warning: unchecked

Collections Framework

List Interface

// ArrayList - dynamic array
List<String> arrayList = new ArrayList<>();
arrayList.add("Apple");
arrayList.add("Banana");
arrayList.get(0);  // "Apple"

// LinkedList - doubly-linked list
List<String> linkedList = new LinkedList<>();
linkedList.addFirst("First");
linkedList.addLast("Last");

// Immutable lists (Java 9+)
List<String> immutable = List.of("A", "B", "C");
// immutable.add("D");  // UnsupportedOperationException

// Common operations
list.size();
list.isEmpty();
list.contains("Apple");
list.remove("Banana");
list.clear();

Set Interface

// HashSet - unordered, no duplicates
Set<String> hashSet = new HashSet<>();
hashSet.add("Apple");
hashSet.add("Banana");
hashSet.add("Apple");  // Ignored - duplicate
// Size is 2

// TreeSet - sorted, no duplicates
Set<Integer> treeSet = new TreeSet<>();
treeSet.add(5);
treeSet.add(1);
treeSet.add(3);
// Iteration order: 1, 3, 5

// LinkedHashSet - insertion order, no duplicates
Set<String> linkedSet = new LinkedHashSet<>();

// Immutable sets (Java 9+)
Set<String> immutable = Set.of("A", "B", "C");

Map Interface

// HashMap - unordered key-value pairs
Map<String, Integer> hashMap = new HashMap<>();
hashMap.put("Alice", 30);
hashMap.put("Bob", 25);
int age = hashMap.get("Alice");  // 30

// TreeMap - sorted by keys
Map<String, Integer> treeMap = new TreeMap<>();

// LinkedHashMap - insertion order
Map<String, Integer> linkedMap = new LinkedHashMap<>();

// Immutable maps (Java 9+)
Map<String, Integer> immutable = Map.of(
    "Alice", 30,
    "Bob", 25
);

// Common operations
map.containsKey("Alice");
map.containsValue(30);
map.remove("Bob");
map.getOrDefault("Charlie", 0);
map.putIfAbsent("David", 35);

// Iteration
for (Map.Entry<String, Integer> entry : map.entrySet()) {
    String key = entry.getKey();
    Integer value = entry.getValue();
}

// Java 8+ forEach
map.forEach((key, value) ->
    System.out.println(key + ": " + value)
);

Queue and Deque

// Queue - FIFO
Queue<String> queue = new LinkedList<>();
queue.offer("First");   // Add to end
queue.offer("Second");
String head = queue.poll();  // Remove from front
String peek = queue.peek();  // View front without removing

// Deque - double-ended queue
Deque<String> deque = new ArrayDeque<>();
deque.addFirst("Front");
deque.addLast("Back");
String first = deque.removeFirst();
String last = deque.removeLast();

// Stack operations (use Deque instead of Stack class)
Deque<String> stack = new ArrayDeque<>();
stack.push("Bottom");
stack.push("Top");
String top = stack.pop();

Stream API

Creating Streams

// From collection
List<String> list = List.of("A", "B", "C");
Stream<String> stream = list.stream();

// From array
String[] array = {"A", "B", "C"};
Stream<String> stream = Arrays.stream(array);

// Using Stream.of
Stream<String> stream = Stream.of("A", "B", "C");

// Infinite streams
Stream<Integer> infinite = Stream.iterate(0, n -> n + 1);
Stream<Double> random = Stream.generate(Math::random);

// Range
IntStream.range(1, 10);        // 1 to 9
IntStream.rangeClosed(1, 10);  // 1 to 10

Intermediate Operations

List<String> names = List.of("Alice", "Bob", "Charlie", "David");

// filter - keep matching elements
List<String> filtered = names.stream()
    .filter(name -> name.length() > 3)
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

// map - transform elements
List<Integer> lengths = names.stream()
    .map(String::length)
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

// flatMap - flatten nested structures
List<List<String>> nested = List.of(
    List.of("A", "B"),
    List.of("C", "D")
);
List<String> flat = nested.stream()
    .flatMap(List::stream)
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

// distinct - remove duplicates
List<Integer> unique = Stream.of(1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3)
    .distinct()
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

// sorted - sort elements
List<String> sorted = names.stream()
    .sorted()
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

// sorted with comparator
List<String> sortedByLength = names.stream()
    .sorted(Comparator.comparing(String::length))
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

// limit - take first n elements
List<String> limited = names.stream()
    .limit(2)
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

// skip - skip first n elements
List<String> skipped = names.stream()
    .skip(2)
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

// peek - perform action without modifying stream
names.stream()
    .peek(System.out::println)
    .map(String::toUpperCase)
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

Terminal Operations

List<Integer> numbers = List.of(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);

// collect - gather into collection
List<Integer> list = numbers.stream().collect(Collectors.toList());
Set<Integer> set = numbers.stream().collect(Collectors.toSet());

// forEach - perform action on each element
numbers.stream().forEach(System.out::println);

// reduce - combine elements
int sum = numbers.stream().reduce(0, Integer::sum);
Optional<Integer> max = numbers.stream().reduce(Integer::max);

// count - count elements
long count = numbers.stream().count();

// anyMatch, allMatch, noneMatch
boolean hasEven = numbers.stream().anyMatch(n -> n % 2 == 0);
boolean allPositive = numbers.stream().allMatch(n -> n > 0);
boolean noNegative = numbers.stream().noneMatch(n -> n < 0);

// findFirst, findAny
Optional<Integer> first = numbers.stream().findFirst();
Optional<Integer> any = numbers.stream().findAny();

// min, max
Optional<Integer> min = numbers.stream().min(Integer::compare);
Optional<Integer> max = numbers.stream().max(Integer::compare);

Collectors

List<String> names = List.of("Alice", "Bob", "Charlie");

// toList, toSet
List<String> list = names.stream().collect(Collectors.toList());
Set<String> set = names.stream().collect(Collectors.toSet());

// toMap
Map<String, Integer> nameToLength = names.stream()
    .collect(Collectors.toMap(
        name -> name,
        String::length
    ));

// groupingBy
Map<Integer, List<String>> byLength = names.stream()
    .collect(Collectors.groupingBy(String::length));

// partitioningBy
Map<Boolean, List<String>> partition = names.stream()
    .collect(Collectors.partitioningBy(name -> name.length() > 3));

// joining
String joined = names.stream()
    .collect(Collectors.joining(", "));

// summarizing
IntSummaryStatistics stats = names.stream()
    .collect(Collectors.summarizingInt(String::length));

Lambda Expressions and Method References

Lambda Syntax

// No parameters
Runnable r = () -> System.out.println("Hello");

// One parameter (parentheses optional)
Consumer<String> c = s -> System.out.println(s);
Consumer<String> c2 = (s) -> System.out.println(s);

// Multiple parameters
BiFunction<Integer, Integer, Integer> add = (a, b) -> a + b;

// Block body
Predicate<String> isEmpty = s -> {
    return s.isEmpty();
};

// Type declarations (optional)
BiFunction<Integer, Integer, Integer> add2 =
    (Integer a, Integer b) -> a + b;

Functional Interfaces

// Built-in functional interfaces

// Predicate<T> - boolean test
Predicate<String> isEmpty = String::isEmpty;
Predicate<Integer> isEven = n -> n % 2 == 0;

// Function<T, R> - transform T to R
Function<String, Integer> length = String::length;
Function<Integer, String> toString = Object::toString;

// Consumer<T> - consume T, return nothing
Consumer<String> print = System.out::println;

// Supplier<T> - supply T, no input
Supplier<String> supplier = () -> "Hello";

// BiFunction<T, U, R> - two inputs
BiFunction<Integer, Integer, Integer> add = (a, b) -> a + b;

// BiConsumer<T, U> - two inputs, no output
BiConsumer<String, Integer> printWithCount =
    (s, n) -> System.out.println(s + ": " + n);

// UnaryOperator<T> - T -> T
UnaryOperator<Integer> square = n -> n * n;

// BinaryOperator<T> - (T, T) -> T
BinaryOperator<Integer> max = Integer::max;

Method References

// Static method reference
Function<String, Integer> parseInt = Integer::parseInt;

// Instance method reference (bound)
String str = "Hello";
Supplier<Integer> length = str::length;

// Instance method reference (unbound)
Function<String, Integer> length2 = String::length;

// Constructor reference
Supplier<List<String>> listSupplier = ArrayList::new;
Function<String, User> userFactory = User::new;

// Array constructor reference
IntFunction<int[]> arrayMaker = int[]::new;

Exception Handling

Try-Catch-Finally

// Basic try-catch
try {
    int result = divide(10, 0);
} catch (ArithmeticException e) {
    System.err.println("Cannot divide by zero: " + e.getMessage());
}

// Multiple catch blocks
try {
    String text = readFile("data.txt");
    int number = Integer.parseInt(text);
} catch (IOException e) {
    System.err.println("File error: " + e.getMessage());
} catch (NumberFormatException e) {
    System.err.println("Parse error: " + e.getMessage());
}

// Multi-catch (Java 7+)
try {
    // risky operation
} catch (IOException | SQLException e) {
    System.err.println("Error: " + e.getMessage());
}

// Finally block - always executes
try {
    openConnection();
    processData();
} catch (Exception e) {
    handleError(e);
} finally {
    closeConnection();  // Always runs
}

Try-with-Resources

// Automatic resource management (Java 7+)
try (BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(new FileReader("file.txt"))) {
    String line = reader.readLine();
    // reader is automatically closed
} catch (IOException e) {
    e.printStackTrace();
}

// Multiple resources
try (FileInputStream in = new FileInputStream("input.txt");
     FileOutputStream out = new FileOutputStream("output.txt")) {
    // Both streams automatically closed
} catch (IOException e) {
    e.printStackTrace();
}

// Java 9+ - resources declared outside
BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(new FileReader("file.txt"));
try (reader) {
    // Use reader
}

Checked vs Unchecked Exceptions

// Checked exceptions - must be handled or declared
public void readFile(String path) throws IOException {
    FileReader reader = new FileReader(path);
    // Must declare throws or wrap in try-catch
}

// Unchecked exceptions - optional handling
public void divide(int a, int b) {
    int result = a / b;  // May throw ArithmeticException
    // No need to declare or catch
}

// Common checked exceptions:
// - IOException
// - SQLException
// - ClassNotFoundException

// Common unchecked exceptions:
// - NullPointerException
// - IllegalArgumentException
// - IllegalStateException
// - IndexOutOfBoundsException

Custom Exceptions

// Custom checked exception
public class ValidationException extends Exception {
    public ValidationException(String message) {
        super(message);
    }

    public ValidationException(String message, Throwable cause) {
        super(message, cause);
    }
}

// Custom unchecked exception
public class InvalidConfigException extends RuntimeException {
    public InvalidConfigException(String message) {
        super(message);
    }
}

// Usage
public void validate(String input) throws ValidationException {
    if (input == null || input.isEmpty()) {
        throw new ValidationException("Input cannot be empty");
    }
}

Pattern Matching (Java 16+)

Pattern Matching for instanceof

// Old way
if (obj instanceof String) {
    String str = (String) obj;
    System.out.println(str.length());
}

// Pattern matching (Java 16+)
if (obj instanceof String str) {
    System.out.println(str.length());
}

// With negation
if (!(obj instanceof String str)) {
    return;
}
System.out.println(str.length());

// In complex conditions
if (obj instanceof String str && str.length() > 5) {
    System.out.println("Long string: " + str);
}

Switch Expressions (Java 14+)

// Traditional switch
int numLetters;
switch (day) {
    case MONDAY:
    case FRIDAY:
    case SUNDAY:
        numLetters = 6;
        break;
    case TUESDAY:
        numLetters = 7;
        break;
    default:
        numLetters = 0;
}

// Switch expression
int numLetters = switch (day) {
    case MONDAY, FRIDAY, SUNDAY -> 6;
    case TUESDAY -> 7;
    case THURSDAY, SATURDAY -> 8;
    case WEDNESDAY -> 9;
};

// With yield for blocks
String result = switch (day) {
    case MONDAY, TUESDAY -> {
        System.out.println("Weekday");
        yield "Work";
    }
    case SATURDAY, SUNDAY -> {
        System.out.println("Weekend");
        yield "Rest";
    }
    default -> "Unknown";
};

Pattern Matching for Switch (Java 21+)

// Type patterns in switch
static String format(Object obj) {
    return switch (obj) {
        case Integer i -> "Integer: " + i;
        case String s -> "String: " + s;
        case null -> "null";
        default -> "Unknown";
    };
}

// With guards
static String describe(Object obj) {
    return switch (obj) {
        case String s when s.length() > 10 -> "Long string";
        case String s -> "Short string: " + s;
        case Integer i when i > 100 -> "Large number";
        case Integer i -> "Small number: " + i;
        default -> "Other";
    };
}

// Record patterns
record Point(int x, int y) {}

static void printPoint(Object obj) {
    if (obj instanceof Point(int x, int y)) {
        System.out.println("Point at " + x + ", " + y);
    }
}

Common Patterns

Builder Pattern

public class User {
    private final String name;
    private final String email;
    private final int age;

    private User(Builder builder) {
        this.name = builder.name;
        this.email = builder.email;
        this.age = builder.age;
    }

    public static class Builder {
        private String name;
        private String email;
        private int age;

        public Builder name(String name) {
            this.name = name;
            return this;
        }

        public Builder email(String email) {
            this.email = email;
            return this;
        }

        public Builder age(int age) {
            this.age = age;
            return this;
        }

        public User build() {
            return new User(this);
        }
    }
}

// Usage
User user = new User.Builder()
    .name("Alice")
    .email("alice@example.com")
    .age(30)
    .build();

Optional Pattern

// Creating Optional
Optional<String> optional = Optional.of("value");
Optional<String> nullable = Optional.ofNullable(getValue());
Optional<String> empty = Optional.empty();

// Using Optional
optional.ifPresent(System.out::println);

String value = optional.orElse("default");
String value2 = optional.orElseGet(() -> getDefault());
String value3 = optional.orElseThrow(() -> new IllegalStateException());

// Transforming
Optional<Integer> length = optional.map(String::length);
Optional<String> upper = optional
    .filter(s -> s.length() > 5)
    .map(String::toUpperCase);

// Java 9+ - or(), ifPresentOrElse(), stream()
Optional<String> result = optional.or(() -> getAlternative());

optional.ifPresentOrElse(
    System.out::println,
    () -> System.out.println("Empty")
);

Factory Methods

public class User {
    private String name;
    private int age;

    private User(String name, int age) {
        this.name = name;
        this.age = age;
    }

    // Factory method
    public static User create(String name, int age) {
        if (age < 0) {
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Age cannot be negative");
        }
        return new User(name, age);
    }

    // Named factory methods
    public static User createChild(String name) {
        return new User(name, 0);
    }

    public static User createAdult(String name, int age) {
        if (age < 18) {
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Must be 18 or older");
        }
        return new User(name, age);
    }
}

Troubleshooting

NullPointerException

Problem: Accessing methods/fields on null references

String str = null;
int length = str.length();  // NullPointerException

Fix: Use null checks or Optional

// Null check
if (str != null) {
    int length = str.length();
}

// Optional
Optional<String> opt = Optional.ofNullable(str);
opt.ifPresent(s -> System.out.println(s.length()));

ClassCastException

Problem: Invalid type casting

Object obj = "Hello";
Integer num = (Integer) obj;  // ClassCastException

Fix: Use instanceof before casting

if (obj instanceof Integer) {
    Integer num = (Integer) obj;
}

// Or pattern matching (Java 16+)
if (obj instanceof Integer num) {
    System.out.println(num);
}

ConcurrentModificationException

Problem: Modifying collection while iterating

List<String> list = new ArrayList<>(List.of("A", "B", "C"));
for (String item : list) {
    list.remove(item);  // ConcurrentModificationException
}

Fix: Use iterator's remove or collect to new list

// Use iterator
Iterator<String> it = list.iterator();
while (it.hasNext()) {
    String item = it.next();
    it.remove();
}

// Or create new list
List<String> filtered = list.stream()
    .filter(item -> !item.equals("B"))
    .collect(Collectors.toList());

Generic Type Erasure Issues

Problem: Cannot create generic array or use instanceof with generics

// T[] array = new T[10];  // Error
// if (obj instanceof List<String>) {}  // Error

Fix: Use List instead of array, or unchecked cast with warning

// Use List
List<T> list = new ArrayList<>();

// Or use Array.newInstance
@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
T[] array = (T[]) Array.newInstance(componentType, size);

Module System

Java uses packages for namespace organization and modules (JPMS, Java 9+) for stronger encapsulation.

Packages

// Package declaration (must be first statement)
package com.example.myapp.util;

// Import statements
import java.util.List;
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.stream.*;  // Wildcard import (all classes)
import static java.lang.Math.PI;  // Static import
import static java.util.Collections.*;  // Static wildcard

public class StringUtils {
    public static String capitalize(String s) {
        return Character.toUpperCase(s.charAt(0)) + s.substring(1);
    }
}

Package Naming Conventions

com.company.project.module.submodule

Examples:
com.example.myapp           # Application root
com.example.myapp.model     # Domain models
com.example.myapp.service   # Business logic
com.example.myapp.controller # Web controllers
com.example.myapp.repository # Data access
com.example.myapp.util      # Utilities

Access Modifiers

public

protected

private

Java Modules (JPMS, Java 9+)

// module-info.java (at source root)
module com.example.myapp {
    // Required modules
    requires java.base;  // Implicit
    requires java.sql;
    requires transitive java.logging;  // Transitive dependency

    // Exported packages (public API)
    exports com.example.myapp.api;
    exports com.example.myapp.model;

    // Qualified exports (to specific modules)
    exports com.example.myapp.internal to com.example.tests;

    // Open for reflection
    opens com.example.myapp.model to com.google.gson;

    // Service provider
    provides com.example.spi.Plugin
        with com.example.myapp.MyPlugin;

    // Service consumer
    uses com.example.spi.Plugin;
}

Project Structure

myproject/
├── src/
│   └── main/
│       ├── java/
│       │   ├── module-info.java
│       │   └── com/
│       │       └── example/
│       │           └── myapp/
│       │               ├── Main.java
│       │               ├── api/
│       │               │   └── UserService.java
│       │               └── model/
│       │                   └── User.java
│       └── resources/
│           └── application.properties
└── pom.xml (or build.gradle)

Concurrency

Java provides multiple concurrency mechanisms from low-level threads to high-level abstractions.

Threads

// Extending Thread
class MyThread extends Thread {
    @Override
    public void run() {
        System.out.println("Running in thread");
    }
}

// Implementing Runnable (preferred)
class MyTask implements Runnable {
    @Override
    public void run() {
        System.out.println("Task running");
    }
}

// Lambda (Java 8+)
Thread thread = new Thread(() -> System.out.println("Lambda thread"));

// Starting threads
new MyThread().start();
new Thread(new MyTask()).start();
thread.start();

// Waiting for completion
thread.join();

Synchronized

public class Counter {
    private int count = 0;

    // Synchronized method
    public synchronized void increment() {
        count++;
    }

    public synchronized int getCount() {
        return count;
    }
}

// Synchronized block
public class SafeList {
    private final List<String> list = new ArrayList<>();
    private final Object lock = new Object();

    public void add(String item) {
        synchronized (lock) {
            list.add(item);
        }
    }
}

ExecutorService

import java.util.concurrent.*;

// Fixed thread pool
ExecutorService executor = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(4);

// Submit tasks
executor.execute(() -> System.out.println("Simple task"));

Future<String> future = executor.submit(() -> {
    Thread.sleep(1000);
    return "Result";
});

// Get result (blocks)
String result = future.get();
String resultWithTimeout = future.get(5, TimeUnit.SECONDS);

// Shutdown
executor.shutdown();
executor.awaitTermination(60, TimeUnit.SECONDS);

CompletableFuture (Java 8+)

import java.util.concurrent.CompletableFuture;

// Create async tasks
CompletableFuture<String> future = CompletableFuture.supplyAsync(() -> {
    return fetchData();
});

// Chain operations
CompletableFuture<Integer> result = future
    .thenApply(data -> parse(data))
    .thenApply(parsed -> process(parsed))
    .exceptionally(ex -> handleError(ex));

// Combine futures
CompletableFuture<String> future1 = CompletableFuture.supplyAsync(() -> "Hello");
CompletableFuture<String> future2 = CompletableFuture.supplyAsync(() -> "World");

CompletableFuture<String> combined = future1.thenCombine(future2,
    (a, b) -> a + " " + b);

// Wait for all
CompletableFuture.allOf(future1, future2).join();

// Wait for any
CompletableFuture.anyOf(future1, future2).join();

Concurrent Collections

import java.util.concurrent.*;

// Thread-safe collections
ConcurrentHashMap<String, Integer> map = new ConcurrentHashMap<>();
map.put("key", 1);
map.computeIfAbsent("key", k -> expensiveComputation(k));

CopyOnWriteArrayList<String> list = new CopyOnWriteArrayList<>();
BlockingQueue<String> queue = new LinkedBlockingQueue<>();

// Atomic types
AtomicInteger counter = new AtomicInteger(0);
counter.incrementAndGet();
counter.compareAndSet(5, 10);

Virtual Threads (Java 21+)

// Virtual threads - lightweight, cheap to create
Thread.startVirtualThread(() -> {
    System.out.println("Virtual thread running");
});

// With executor
try (var executor = Executors.newVirtualThreadPerTaskExecutor()) {
    for (int i = 0; i < 10000; i++) {
        executor.submit(() -> {
            // Each task runs on a virtual thread
            return fetchData();
        });
    }
}

See also:

patterns-concurrency-dev

Metaprogramming

Java uses annotations and reflection for metaprogramming.

Annotations

// Built-in annotations
@Override
public String toString() { ... }

@Deprecated
public void oldMethod() { ... }

@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
public List<T> getList() { ... }

@FunctionalInterface
interface Processor<T> {
    T process(T input);
}

Custom Annotations

import java.lang.annotation.*;

// Runtime annotation
@Retention(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME)
@Target(ElementType.METHOD)
public @interface Loggable {
    String value() default "";
    Level level() default Level.INFO;
}

// Compile-time annotation
@Retention(RetentionPolicy.SOURCE)
@Target(ElementType.TYPE)
public @interface Generated {
    String date();
    String author();
}

// Usage
public class MyService {
    @Loggable(level = Level.DEBUG)
    public void doWork() {
        // ...
    }
}

Reflection

import java.lang.reflect.*;

// Get class information
Class<?> clazz = User.class;
Class<?> clazz2 = obj.getClass();
Class<?> clazz3 = Class.forName("com.example.User");

// Inspect fields
for (Field field : clazz.getDeclaredFields()) {
    System.out.println(field.getName() + ": " + field.getType());
}

// Inspect methods
for (Method method : clazz.getDeclaredMethods()) {
    System.out.println(method.getName());
    Loggable annotation = method.getAnnotation(Loggable.class);
    if (annotation != null) {
        System.out.println("Loggable: " + annotation.value());
    }
}

// Create instance
Object instance = clazz.getDeclaredConstructor().newInstance();

// Access private fields
Field field = clazz.getDeclaredField("name");
field.setAccessible(true);
field.set(instance, "Alice");

// Invoke methods
Method method = clazz.getDeclaredMethod("greet", String.class);
Object result = method.invoke(instance, "World");

Annotation Processing

// Annotation processor (runs at compile time)
@SupportedAnnotationTypes("com.example.Generated")
@SupportedSourceVersion(SourceVersion.RELEASE_17)
public class GeneratedProcessor extends AbstractProcessor {
    @Override
    public boolean process(Set<? extends TypeElement> annotations,
                          RoundEnvironment roundEnv) {
        for (Element element : roundEnv.getElementsAnnotatedWith(Generated.class)) {
            // Generate code
        }
        return true;
    }
}

See also:

patterns-metaprogramming-dev

Serialization

Java supports multiple serialization frameworks, with Jackson being the most popular for JSON.

Jackson Basics

import com.fasterxml.jackson.databind.ObjectMapper;

ObjectMapper mapper = new ObjectMapper();

// Serialize
User user = new User("Alice", 30);
String json = mapper.writeValueAsString(user);

// Pretty print
String prettyJson = mapper.writerWithDefaultPrettyPrinter()
    .writeValueAsString(user);

// Deserialize
User parsed = mapper.readValue(json, User.class);

// Collections
List<User> users = mapper.readValue(jsonArray,
    new TypeReference<List<User>>() {});

Jackson Annotations

import com.fasterxml.jackson.annotation.*;

public class User {
    @JsonProperty("user_id")
    private String id;

    private String name;

    @JsonIgnore
    private String password;

    @JsonProperty(access = JsonProperty.Access.READ_ONLY)
    private LocalDateTime createdAt;

    @JsonInclude(JsonInclude.Include.NON_NULL)
    private String email;

    @JsonFormat(pattern = "yyyy-MM-dd")
    private LocalDate birthDate;
}

// Ignore unknown properties
@JsonIgnoreProperties(ignoreUnknown = true)
public class Config { ... }

// Polymorphic types
@JsonTypeInfo(use = JsonTypeInfo.Id.NAME)
@JsonSubTypes({
    @JsonSubTypes.Type(value = Dog.class, name = "dog"),
    @JsonSubTypes.Type(value = Cat.class, name = "cat")
})
public abstract class Animal { ... }

Bean Validation (Jakarta Validation)

import jakarta.validation.constraints.*;

public class User {
    @NotNull
    @Size(min = 1, max = 100)
    private String name;

    @NotBlank
    @Email
    private String email;

    @Min(0)
    @Max(150)
    private int age;

    @Pattern(regexp = "^[A-Z]{2}\\d{6}$")
    private String licenseNumber;

    @NotEmpty
    private List<@NotBlank String> roles;
}

// Validation
ValidatorFactory factory = Validation.buildDefaultValidatorFactory();
Validator validator = factory.getValidator();

Set<ConstraintViolation<User>> violations = validator.validate(user);
for (ConstraintViolation<User> v : violations) {
    System.out.println(v.getPropertyPath() + ": " + v.getMessage());
}

Custom Jackson Serializer

public class MoneySerializer extends JsonSerializer<Money> {
    @Override
    public void serialize(Money value, JsonGenerator gen,
                         SerializerProvider provider) throws IOException {
        gen.writeStartObject();
        gen.writeNumberField("amount", value.getAmount());
        gen.writeStringField("currency", value.getCurrency());
        gen.writeEndObject();
    }
}

// Usage
@JsonSerialize(using = MoneySerializer.class)
private Money price;

See also:

patterns-serialization-dev

Build and Dependencies

Java uses Maven or Gradle for build and dependency management.

Maven (pom.xml)

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<project xmlns="http://maven.apache.org/POM/4.0.0">
    <modelVersion>4.0.0</modelVersion>

    <groupId>com.example</groupId>
    <artifactId>myproject</artifactId>
    <version>1.0.0-SNAPSHOT</version>
    <packaging>jar</packaging>

    <properties>
        <java.version>17</java.version>
        <maven.compiler.source>${java.version}</maven.compiler.source>
        <maven.compiler.target>${java.version}</maven.compiler.target>
    </properties>

    <dependencies>
        <dependency>
            <groupId>com.fasterxml.jackson.core</groupId>
            <artifactId>jackson-databind</artifactId>
            <version>2.15.0</version>
        </dependency>

        <dependency>
            <groupId>org.junit.jupiter</groupId>
            <artifactId>junit-jupiter</artifactId>
            <version>5.10.0</version>
            <scope>test</scope>
        </dependency>
    </dependencies>

    <build>
        <plugins>
            <plugin>
                <groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
                <artifactId>maven-compiler-plugin</artifactId>
                <version>3.11.0</version>
            </plugin>
        </plugins>
    </build>
</project>

Gradle (build.gradle.kts)

plugins {
    java
    application
}

group = "com.example"
version = "1.0.0-SNAPSHOT"

java {
    toolchain {
        languageVersion.set(JavaLanguageVersion.of(17))
    }
}

repositories {
    mavenCentral()
}

dependencies {
    implementation("com.fasterxml.jackson.core:jackson-databind:2.15.0")
    testImplementation("org.junit.jupiter:junit-jupiter:5.10.0")
}

application {
    mainClass.set("com.example.Main")
}

tasks.test {
    useJUnitPlatform()
}

Common Commands

mvn compile

gradle build

mvn test

gradle test

mvn package

gradle jar

mvn install

gradle publishToMavenLocal

mvn clean

gradle clean

mvn dependency:tree

gradle dependencies

Dependency Scopes

compile

provided

runtime

test

Testing

Java uses JUnit for testing, commonly with Mockito for mocking.

JUnit 5 Basics

import org.junit.jupiter.api.*;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;

class CalculatorTest {
    private Calculator calculator;

    @BeforeEach
    void setUp() {
        calculator = new Calculator();
    }

    @Test
    void shouldAddTwoNumbers() {
        int result = calculator.add(2, 3);
        assertEquals(5, result);
    }

    @Test
    void shouldThrowOnDivisionByZero() {
        assertThrows(ArithmeticException.class, () -> {
            calculator.divide(10, 0);
        });
    }

    @Test
    @DisplayName("Addition is commutative")
    void additionIsCommutative() {
        assertEquals(
            calculator.add(2, 3),
            calculator.add(3, 2)
        );
    }
}

Assertions

// Equality
assertEquals(expected, actual);
assertEquals(expected, actual, "Custom message");
assertNotEquals(unexpected, actual);

// Boolean
assertTrue(condition);
assertFalse(condition);

// Null checks
assertNull(value);
assertNotNull(value);

// Same instance
assertSame(expected, actual);
assertNotSame(unexpected, actual);

// Arrays
assertArrayEquals(expected, actual);

// Exceptions
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
    service.process(null);
});

// Timeout
assertTimeout(Duration.ofSeconds(5), () -> {
    slowOperation();
});

// Multiple assertions
assertAll(
    () -> assertEquals("Alice", user.getName()),
    () -> assertEquals(30, user.getAge()),
    () -> assertNotNull(user.getEmail())
);

Parameterized Tests

@ParameterizedTest
@ValueSource(ints = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5})
void shouldBePositive(int number) {
    assertTrue(number > 0);
}

@ParameterizedTest
@CsvSource({
    "1, 2, 3",
    "10, 20, 30",
    "-1, 1, 0"
})
void shouldAdd(int a, int b, int expected) {
    assertEquals(expected, calculator.add(a, b));
}

@ParameterizedTest
@MethodSource("numberProvider")
void shouldBeEven(int number) {
    assertEquals(0, number % 2);
}

static Stream<Integer> numberProvider() {
    return Stream.of(2, 4, 6, 8);
}

Mockito

import org.mockito.*;
import static org.mockito.Mockito.*;

@ExtendWith(MockitoExtension.class)
class UserServiceTest {
    @Mock
    private UserRepository repository;

    @InjectMocks
    private UserService service;

    @Test
    void shouldFindUserById() {
        // Given
        User user = new User(1L, "Alice");
        when(repository.findById(1L)).thenReturn(Optional.of(user));

        // When
        User result = service.getUser(1L);

        // Then
        assertEquals("Alice", result.getName());
        verify(repository).findById(1L);
    }

    @Test
    void shouldThrowWhenUserNotFound() {
        when(repository.findById(anyLong())).thenReturn(Optional.empty());

        assertThrows(UserNotFoundException.class, () -> {
            service.getUser(999L);
        });
    }
}

Test Lifecycle

class LifecycleTest {
    @BeforeAll
    static void setUpClass() {
        // Run once before all tests
    }

    @AfterAll
    static void tearDownClass() {
        // Run once after all tests
    }

    @BeforeEach
    void setUp() {
        // Run before each test
    }

    @AfterEach
    void tearDown() {
        // Run after each test
    }

    @Test
    @Disabled("Not implemented yet")
    void pendingTest() {
        // Skipped
    }
}

Cross-Cutting Patterns

For cross-language comparison and translation patterns, see:

• patterns-concurrency-dev

  - Threads, executors, async patterns

• patterns-serialization-dev

  - Jackson, validation, annotations

• patterns-metaprogramming-dev

  - Annotations, reflection, processors

References

• Java Documentation
• Java Tutorial
• Java Language Specification
• Specialized skills:

  lang-java-patterns-dev

  ,

  lang-java-spring-dev

  ,

  lang-java-library-dev

  ,

  lang-java-build-dev

  ,

  lang-java-test-dev