Research Writing

Research writing is argumentation grounded in systematic inquiry. It differs from personal essay or opinion writing not in the presence of a thesis but in the nature of the evidence: research writing draws on sources that have been found, evaluated, and synthesized through a disciplined process. The research paper is not a report of what others have said -- it is an original argument supported by a curated body of evidence. This skill covers the research process, academic genres, citation systems, source evaluation, argument construction, and ethical practice.

Agent affinity: orwell (argument clarity), baldwin (research as moral inquiry), calkins (teaching research process), strunk (citation precision)

Concept IDs: writ-textual-evidence, writ-close-reading, writ-thematic-analysis, writ-interpretive-frameworks

Part I -- The Research Process

Question Formation

Research begins with a question, not a topic. "Climate change" is a topic. "How do carbon pricing mechanisms affect industrial emissions in developing economies?" is a research question. The question must be specific enough to be answerable, significant enough to be worth answering, and open enough that the answer is not predetermined.

The funnel model:

1. Broad interest: Climate policy.
2. Narrowed focus: Market-based climate policy instruments.
3. Research question: How do carbon pricing mechanisms affect industrial emissions in developing economies?
4. Working thesis: Carbon pricing reduces emissions in developing economies only when paired with energy access guarantees.

The working thesis is provisional -- it guides research but is revised as evidence accumulates.

Literature Review

A literature review is not a list of summaries. It is a map of the scholarly conversation: who has investigated this question, what methods they used, what they found, where they agree and disagree, and what remains unknown.

Structure options:

• Chronological: Traces the development of the field over time.
• Thematic: Groups sources by subtopic or argument.
• Methodological: Groups sources by approach (quantitative, qualitative, mixed).
• Debate-oriented: Organizes around competing positions.

The gap statement. Every literature review ends by identifying what the existing research has not addressed. This gap is the justification for the current project.

Evidence Evaluation

Not all evidence is equal. The strength of a research argument depends on the quality of its sources.

The CRAAP Test:

Criterion	Questions
Currency	When was it published? Has it been updated? Is the topic time-sensitive?
Relevance	Does it address your question? Who is the intended audience?
Authority	Who is the author? What are their credentials? Who published it?
Accuracy	Is the evidence supported? Can claims be verified? Is it peer-reviewed?
Purpose	Is the intent to inform, persuade, sell, or entertain? Are biases disclosed?

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary sources are original evidence: data, interviews, historical documents, literary texts, experiments, artifacts.

Secondary sources interpret, analyze, or synthesize primary sources: journal articles, reviews, textbooks, criticism.

Tertiary sources compile and summarize secondary sources: encyclopedias, databases, textbook surveys.

Research writing prioritizes primary and secondary sources. Tertiary sources are useful for orientation but should not be cited as evidence in a research argument.

Part II -- Academic Genres

Research Paper

An original argument supported by evidence from primary and/or secondary sources. The standard structure:

1. Abstract (150-300 words): summary of question, method, findings, and significance.
2. Introduction: context, significance, research question, thesis.
3. Literature review: the scholarly conversation and the gap.
4. Methods (if empirical): how data was gathered and analyzed.
5. Results/Analysis: what the evidence shows.
6. Discussion: what the results mean, limitations, implications.
7. Conclusion: answer to the research question, significance, future directions.

Literature Review (Standalone)

A comprehensive survey of existing research on a topic. Unlike the lit review section of a paper, a standalone review is the product -- it synthesizes the field, identifies trends, and proposes directions for future research.

Annotated Bibliography

A list of sources, each with a summary and evaluative annotation. The annotation is not a review but a research tool: what does this source argue, what evidence does it use, and how does it relate to your project?

Thesis and Dissertation

Extended research arguments (50-300+ pages) that make an original contribution to a field. The thesis is the culmination of a degree program and must demonstrate mastery of the field, methodological competence, and original insight.

Conference Paper

Shorter, more focused research presentations designed for oral delivery with accompanying written text. Conference papers often present work in progress and benefit from audience feedback before journal submission.

Part III -- Citation Systems

Why Citation Matters

Citation is not bureaucratic formality. It is the mechanism by which scholarship builds on prior work, enables verification, credits intellectual labor, and maps the network of ideas. A missing citation is not just a formatting error -- it is a broken link in the chain of knowledge.

Major Systems

System	Fields	In-Text Format	Example
MLA	Humanities, literature	(Author Page)	(Baldwin 42)
APA	Social sciences, education	(Author, Year)	(Baldwin, 1955)
Chicago Notes	History, some humanities	Superscript footnote	Baldwin, Notes of a Native Son...
Chicago Author-Date	Sciences, social sciences	(Author Year)	(Baldwin 1955)
IEEE	Engineering, CS	[Number]	[3]

Citation Construction Principles

Regardless of system:

• Completeness: Include all information a reader needs to locate the source.
• Consistency: Use one system throughout; do not mix.
• Accuracy: Verify every detail (author name spelling, publication year, page numbers).
• Integration: Citations should be woven into sentences, not appended as afterthoughts.

Part IV -- Research Argument Construction

Hypothesis-Driven Research

Begin with a testable prediction. Design research to confirm or disconfirm it. Common in sciences and quantitative social sciences.

Structure: hypothesis -> methodology -> data collection -> analysis -> conclusion (hypothesis supported/refuted/modified).

Question-Driven Research

Begin with an open question. Allow the evidence to shape the argument. Common in humanities and qualitative research.

Structure: question -> source gathering -> analysis -> emergent thesis -> argument construction.

Thesis as Evolving Claim

The thesis at the end of the research process is rarely identical to the thesis at the beginning. Research changes what you think. An honest research paper acknowledges this evolution -- the strongest thesis is one that has been tested and refined by the evidence, not one that was fixed before the research began.

Qualifying Claims

Research writing requires precision about the scope and confidence of claims:

Qualifier	Strength	Use when
"This demonstrates"	Strong	Evidence is conclusive and directly relevant
"This suggests"	Moderate	Evidence supports but does not prove
"This may indicate"	Tentative	Evidence is preliminary or indirect
"Further research is needed"	Honest uncertainty	The question exceeds the current evidence

Over-claiming undermines credibility. Under-claiming wastes the reader's time. Calibrate qualification to the evidence.

Part V -- Ethical Research Practices

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is presenting another person's ideas or words as your own. It includes:

• Copying text without quotation marks and citation.
• Paraphrasing ideas without attribution.
• Submitting another person's work as your own.
• Self-plagiarism (submitting the same work for multiple purposes without disclosure).

The test is not "did I change enough words?" but "would a reader know where this idea came from?"

Paraphrase Integrity

A legitimate paraphrase:

1. Uses your own sentence structure (not the original's structure with substituted synonyms).
2. Demonstrates your understanding of the source's meaning.
3. Includes a citation crediting the original source.

Patchwriting -- stitching together phrases from multiple sources with minor word changes -- is a form of plagiarism even when citations are present.

Data Transparency

Research that involves data collection must be transparent about:

• How data was gathered.
• What was included and excluded, and why.
• How analysis was conducted.
• What the limitations are.

Selective reporting (presenting only results that support the thesis) is a form of intellectual dishonesty as serious as fabrication.

Cross-References

• orwell agent: Clarity in research argument construction. Cuts jargon and inflated language.
• baldwin agent: Research as moral inquiry -- the essay tradition that informs humanities research.
• calkins agent: Teaching the research process to developing writers.
• strunk agent: Precision in citation and attribution.
• expository-writing skill: The argumentative structures that research writing builds on.
• revision-editing skill: How research drafts are revised for argument coherence.

References

• Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., & Williams, J. M. (2008). The Craft of Research. 3rd ed. University of Chicago Press.
• Graff, G., & Birkenstein, C. (2009). They Say / I Say. 2nd ed. Norton.
• Turabian, K. L. (2018). A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 9th ed. University of Chicago Press.
• American Psychological Association. (2019). Publication Manual. 7th ed.
• Modern Language Association. (2021). MLA Handbook. 9th ed.
• Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre Analysis. Cambridge University Press.